{"type": "root", "children": [{"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nmiR-149—including its mature form, its passenger strand (miR-149*), and its isoforms miR‑149‑5p/3p—has emerged as a critical regulator in multiple human diseases. Several genetic association studies have demonstrated that single‐nucleotide polymorphisms in the miR‑149 precursor contribute to altered cancer risk and clinical outcomes in gastrointestinal and cardiovascular conditions, among others."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_fs", "start_ref": "1", "end_ref": "7"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n\n"}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nIn oncologic contexts, miR‑149 chiefly acts as a tumor suppressor by inhibiting cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. Functional studies have revealed that miR‑149 directly targets key oncogenic mediators—including GIT1 in breast cancer"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "8"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": ", SP1 in colorectal cancer"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "9"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": ", and ZBTB2 in gastric cancer"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "10"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "—while its action in hepatocellular carcinoma involves the suppression of PPM1F."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "11"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " Similarly, miR‑149 impedes glioblastoma progression by modulating AKT1‑dependent signaling"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "12"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": ", and its downregulation has been linked to enhanced tumor growth in astrocytomas"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "13"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "and osteosarcomas."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "14"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n\n"}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nThe expression of miR‑149 is itself subject to regulation. Under cellular stress, p53 directly upregulates miR‑149* in melanoma cells, triggering a cascade that targets glycogen synthase kinase‑3α and ultimately promotes resistance to apoptosis."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "15"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " In parallel, direct targeting of Akt1 and E2F1 by miR‑149* has been shown to induce apoptosis in neuroblastoma and HeLa cells"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "16"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": ", whereas diminished miR‑149 levels via epigenetic silencing contribute to chemoresistance in breast cancer through NDST1 regulation."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "17"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " Notably, in T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia, miR‑149* expression is elevated and exerts oncogenic effects by downregulating the tumor suppressor JunB, reflecting a context‑dependent dichotomy."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "18"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n\n"}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nApart from its roles in growth regulation, miR‑149 influences treatment responses. In glioblastoma, restoration of miR‑149 enhances chemosensitivity to temozolomide"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "19"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": ", and in invasive breast cancer models, increased miR‑149 levels reduce cell migration and lung colonization, partly by impairing focal adhesion dynamics."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "20"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " In colorectal cancer cells, overexpression of miR‑149* has been found to downregulate CDK4/6, contributing to cell‑cycle arrest and reduced proliferation."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "22"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n\n"}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nNon‑coding RNA “sponging” represents an additional layer of miR‑149 regulation. In nasopharyngeal carcinoma, the long non‑coding RNA LINC00460 promotes tumor progression by sequestering miR‑149‑5p, thereby modulating IL6 signaling."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "23"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " In non‑small cell lung cancer, HNF1A‑AS1 similarly binds miR‑149‑5p to derepress CDK6."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "24"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " Likewise, circular RNAs such as circ_0124644 in atherosclerosis and circCTNNA1 in colon cancer act as competing endogenous RNAs that sequester miR‑149‑5p, leading to aberrant expression of targets like PAPP‑A"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "25"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "and FOXM1."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "26"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " Furthermore, increased levels of circulating miR‑149‑3p have been proposed as a diagnostic biomarker in melanoma."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "27"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n\n"}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nBeyond cancer, miR‑149‑5p plays important roles in non‑malignant diseases. In osteoarthritis, reduced miR‑149 expression correlates with increased levels of pro‑inflammatory cytokines and impaired chondrocyte survival and autophagy."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "28"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " In type 1 diabetes, miR‑149‑5p modulates β‑cell apoptosis by regulating pro‑apoptotic Bcl‑2 family members"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "30"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": ", and polymorphisms in the miR‑149 precursor have been linked to altered myocardial infarction outcomes due to diminished production of mature miR‑149 and consequent dysregulation of apoptotic pathways."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "31"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n\n"}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nCollectively, these findings illustrate the multifaceted functions of miR‑149 and its related isoforms as context‑dependent modulators of cell survival, proliferation, migration, and apoptosis. By directly targeting a range of oncogenes and key components of cell‑cycle and signaling pathways—and being itself regulated by genetic, epigenetic, and non‑coding RNA interactions—miR‑149 shows promise as both a prognostic biomarker and a potential therapeutic target across a spectrum of diseases.\n"}]}, {"type": "rg", "children": [{"type": "r", "ref": 1, "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "Zhensheng Liu, Guojun Li, Sheng Wei, et al. 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