{"type": "root", "children": [{"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nMiR‐19a has emerged as an important regulator of inflammatory and immune responses. In the asthmatic airway, elevated miR‐19a drives type 2 helper T‐cell polarization by directly targeting suppressors such as PTEN, SOCS1, and A20, thereby promoting TH2 cytokine production and amplifying inflammatory signaling."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "1"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " In rheumatoid arthritis fibroblast‐like synoviocytes, a concomitant downregulation of miR‐19a (and its cluster mate miR‐19b) relieves repression of TLR2, leading to increased secretion of IL‑6 and matrix metalloproteinase‑3 that contribute to joint inflammation."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "2"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " In the vascular context, endothelial HIF‑1α induces miR‑19a expression that in turn upregulates CXCL1 expression, promoting monocyte adhesion and fueling atherosclerotic lesion development."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "3"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " Moreover, miR‑19a can diminish expression of SOCS3 to enhance cytokine‐driven JAK–STAT signaling"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "4"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": ", while its targeting of HBP‑1 in macrophages leads to increased macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) levels and contributes to foam cell formation in atherosclerosis."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "5"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " Additionally, miR‑19a directly modulates the expression of 5‑lipoxygenase, thereby influencing leukotriene biosynthesis and inflammatory responses."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "6"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n\n"}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nIn the oncologic setting, miR‑19a, a key member of the miR‑17–92 cluster, is frequently deregulated and functions predominantly as an oncomiR by suppressing multiple tumor‐suppressor genes. In T‑cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia, overexpression of miR‑19a represses CYLD, sustaining NF‑κB activation."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "7"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " In esophageal squamous cell carcinoma, antagonism of miR‑19a leads to upregulation of TNF‑α, suggesting its pivotal role in cell survival."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "9"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " Aggressive breast cancer subtypes exhibit elevated miR‑19a expression that correlates with reduced tissue factor levels and more invasive phenotypes."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "11"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " In colorectal cancer, miR‑19a not only serves as a circulating diagnostic biomarker"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "13"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": ", but also promotes epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) by suppressing PTEN, thereby enhancing metastatic potential."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "14"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " In colon cancer, direct targeting of transglutaminase‑2 (TG2) further contributes to invasive behavior."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "16"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " In lung cancer, enforced miR‑19a expression drives EMT and supports cancer stem cell traits via targeting of GSK3β"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "17"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": ", while in another colorectal study, miR‑19a was associated with lymph node metastasis through TNF‑α–induced EMT."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "18"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " Hepatocellular carcinoma studies show that miR‑19a‐3p promotes metastasis and confers resistance to sorafenib via downregulation of PTEN."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "19"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " In glioma, overexpression of miR‑19a (often together with miR‑19b) results in suppression of PTEN and correlates with higher tumor grade."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "20"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " In lung cancer stem cells, miR‑19 contributes to activation of the Wnt/β‑catenin pathway by targeting GSK3β"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "21"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": ", and in prostate cancer, downregulation of miR‑19a inhibits bone metastasis by modulating SMAD signaling."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "22"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " Furthermore, in hepatocellular carcinoma, miR‑19a‑3p mediates metastasis and drug resistance through regulation of the PTEN/Akt pathway"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "23"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": ", and in glioblastoma, miR‑19a‐5p is sponged by long non‑coding RNAs to regulate TET2 expression, thereby influencing proliferation and invasion."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "24"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n\n"}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nBeyond its roles in inflammation and oncogenesis, miR‑19a is also implicated in cardiovascular biology and tissue repair. In heart failure patients, induction of miR‑19a/19b promotes cardiomyocyte proliferation and cardiac regeneration following myocardial infarction, in part through repression of immune‐response genes."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "25"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " Circulating miR‑19a levels are markedly elevated in acute myocardial infarction, where they outperform traditional biochemical markers in diagnostic accuracy."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "26"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " Moreover, emerging evidence implicates the miR‑19a/SIRT1/FoxO3/SPHK1 axis in modulating ischemia/reperfusion injury, suggesting a potential therapeutic target to minimize reperfusion‐induced damage."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "27"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "rg", "children": [{"type": "r", "ref": 1, "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "Laura J Simpson, Sana Patel, Nirav R Bhakta, et al. 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