{"type": "root", "children": [{"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nPeptide YY (PYY) is a gut‐derived hormone produced and secreted by specialized enteroendocrine cells distributed throughout the gastrointestinal tract. Detailed anatomical and expression studies have demonstrated that PYY is found in endocrine cells—and even in certain neuronal populations—as part of a coexpression pattern with other gut peptides. This widespread distribution supports its role in regulating gastrointestinal motility, electrolyte secretion, and the integration of digestive signals with systemic energy balance responses."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_fs", "start_ref": "1", "end_ref": "3"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n\n"}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nFunctionally, the active form—PYY₃₋₃₆—acts on hypothalamic Y₂ receptors to suppress appetite and reduce food intake, thereby serving as a key anorexigenic signal. Neuroimaging studies indicate that elevated circulating PYY levels in the postprandial state shift the regulation of feeding from classic homeostatic (hypothalamic) centers to hedonic, corticolimbic regions, modulating both satiety and aspects of mood and anxiety. Furthermore, emerging evidence suggests that disruptions in PYY signaling may not only predispose individuals to obesity but also influence bone metabolism, hinting at a broader integrative role in energy homeostasis and systemic physiology."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_fs", "start_ref": "4", "end_ref": "7"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n\n"}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nAdditional research underscores the dynamic regulation of PYY in response to nutritional and physiological stimuli. Infusion studies have demonstrated that efficient fat digestion is required for the stimulation of PYY release, while both aerobic and resistance exercise protocols modulate its plasma levels, linking this peptide closely to acute satiety signaling and postprandial appetite control. Moreover, recent advances in human primary intestinal culture models have provided new methods to study the secretion dynamics of PYY, with implications for potential therapeutic strategies against diabetes and obesity. Early clinical observations also point to lower circulating levels of PYY in certain pediatric populations with obesity, implying that insufficient PYY signaling may contribute to the pathophysiology of metabolic disease."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_fs", "start_ref": "8", "end_ref": "12"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "rg", "children": [{"type": "r", "ref": 1, "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "Eva Ekblad, Frank Sundler "}, {"type": "b", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "Distribution of pancreatic polypeptide and peptide YY."}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " "}, {"type": "i", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "Peptides (2002)"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " DOI: "}, {"type": "a", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "10.1016/s0196-9781(01)00601-5"}], "href": "https://doi.org/10.1016/s0196-9781(01"}, {"type": "t", "text": "00601-5) PMID: "}, {"type": "a", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "11825640"}], "href": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11825640"}]}, {"type": "r", "ref": 2, "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "R E Steinert, A C Gerspach, H Gutmann, et al. 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"}, {"type": "b", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "A major lineage of enteroendocrine cells coexpress CCK, secretin, GIP, GLP-1, PYY, and neurotensin but not somatostatin."}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " "}, {"type": "i", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "Endocrinology (2012)"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " DOI: "}, {"type": "a", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "10.1210/en.2012-1595"}], "href": "https://doi.org/10.1210/en.2012-1595"}, {"type": "t", "text": " PMID: "}, {"type": "a", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "23064014"}], "href": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23064014"}]}, {"type": "r", "ref": 4, "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "Madhusmita Misra, Karen K Miller, Patrika Tsai, et al. 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