{"type": "root", "children": [{"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nRnd3 (also known as RhoE) is an atypical, constitutively GTP‐bound member of the Rho family that plays a pivotal role in orchestrating actin cytoskeletal dynamics and cell shape. It is regulated by multiple post‐translational mechanisms, including phosphorylation that creates binding sites for 14–3–3 proteins and interactions with partners such as PDK1 and the adaptor Socius—all of which modulate its subcellular localization and functional capacity to antagonize RhoA/ROCK signaling. These regulatory events serve as a molecular switch—dampening actomyosin contractility and affecting cell rounding and stress fiber disassembly."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_fs", "start_ref": "1", "end_ref": "4"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n\n"}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nIn a variety of tumor contexts, altered Rnd3 expression critically influences cell motility and invasion. For example, in melanoma, oncogenic B‐RAF governs Rnd3 levels to modulate RhoA‐mediated actin stress fiber assembly and invasive behavior; in hypoxic gastric cancer cells, HIF–1α–mediated upregulation of RhoE promotes epithelial–mesenchymal marker changes; and in hepatocellular and esophageal carcinomas, decreased Rnd3 correlates with enhanced Rho/ROCK activity, loss of cell–cell adhesion, and acquisition of invasive phenotypes. More broadly, Rnd3 has been implicated in regulating the balance between mesenchymal and amoeboid modes of cell movement, partly by controlling membrane bleb dynamics."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_fs", "start_ref": "5", "end_ref": "12"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n\n"}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nRnd3 expression is tightly controlled at the post‐transcriptional level by non–coding RNAs and epigenetic modifications. MicroRNAs such as miR–200b, miR–200c, and members of the miR–17 family directly bind the 3′–UTR of RND3 mRNA and downregulate its expression, thereby facilitating cell cycle progression and altering chemosensitivity in cancers including cervical, colorectal, and gastric carcinomas. In parallel, long non–coding RNAs such as TUG1 can epigenetically silence RND3 by recruiting chromatin–modifying complexes, further underscoring the importance of RND3 modulation in disease pathogenesis."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_fs", "start_ref": "13", "end_ref": "16"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n\n"}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nBeyond its role in remodeling the cytoskeleton and influencing invasion, Rnd3 is a multifaceted regulator in diverse physiological and pathological settings. Enhanced expression can inhibit proliferation and promote apoptosis—as observed in glioblastoma and prostate cancer cells—while its loss contributes to multidrug resistance in gastric cancers through impairment of apoptotic cascades. Rnd3 is also subject to regulation by chaperone–mediated autophagy (via LAMP2A), which is required for maintaining its low levels in rapidly proliferating tumor cells. Moreover, its regulation of Notch signaling has been linked to developmental disorders such as hydrocephalus as well as to differentiation processes in keratinocytes and trophoblast fusion in the placenta. In lung cancer, altered Rnd3 expression—modulated by miRNAs—correlates with perturbed epithelial–mesenchymal transition, and emerging evidence even connects Rnd3 deregulation in adipose tissue with insulin resistance. Collectively, these findings highlight the context–dependent duality of Rnd3 as both a tumor suppressor and promoter, with significant implications for cancer progression, tissue homeostasis, and inflammatory responses."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_fs", "start_ref": "17", "end_ref": "33"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "rg", "children": [{"type": "r", "ref": 1, "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "Sophie Pinner, Erik Sahai "}, {"type": "b", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "PDK1 regulates cancer cell motility by antagonising inhibition of ROCK1 by RhoE."}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " "}, {"type": "i", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "Nat Cell Biol (2008)"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " DOI: "}, {"type": "a", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "10.1038/ncb1675"}], "href": "https://doi.org/10.1038/ncb1675"}, {"type": "t", "text": " PMID: "}, {"type": "a", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "18204440"}], "href": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18204440"}]}, {"type": "r", "ref": 2, "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "Philippe Riou, Svend Kjær, Ritu Garg, et al. 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