{"type": "root", "children": [{"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nTransforming growth factor‐β receptor type II (TGFBR2) is a transmembrane serine/threonine kinase that, upon binding dimeric TGF‐β ligands, nucleates the formation of heterotetrameric receptor complexes essential for downstream Smad‐dependent and –independent signaling. Detailed structural and crystallographic studies have revealed the unique conformations and receptor–ligand interfaces that underlie TGFBR2’s ability to recruit and activate type I receptors, a process critical for extracellular matrix formation and proper tissue homeostasis. Moreover, mutations and splicing defects in TGFBR2 are causally linked to several developmental disorders—such as Marfan syndrome type II and Loeys–Dietz syndrome—that manifest with cardiovascular, craniofacial, skeletal, and neurocognitive abnormalities, underscoring the receptor’s pivotal role during embryogenesis and connective tissue development."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_fs", "start_ref": "1", "end_ref": "12"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n\n"}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nIn neoplastic contexts, aberrations of TGFBR2—including frameshift mutations, epigenetic silencing, and microRNA‐mediated downregulation—disrupt its tumor‐suppressive functions and contribute to oncogenic transformation and progression. For example, in microsatellite unstable colorectal cancers, TGFBR2 is frequently inactivated through frameshift mutations; in other cancers, such as renal carcinoma and nasopharyngeal carcinoma, altered receptor stability (mediated by events like c‐Cbl–driven neddylation or modulation by CD109) and repression by microRNAs (including miR‐21, miR‐106a, and miR‐93) perturb normal TGF‐β responses. Such dysregulation not only promotes cell proliferation, invasion, and epithelial–mesenchymal transition but also reprograms the tumor microenvironment by influencing stromal and paracrine signaling, thereby contributing to drug resistance and metastatic dissemination."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_fs", "start_ref": "13", "end_ref": "29"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n\n"}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nBeyond its established roles in development and tumor suppression, TGFBR2 also functions in diverse physiological processes such as tissue repair, immune regulation, and bone metabolism. In the context of wound healing, differential expression of TGFBR2 among epidermal and dermal cells helps coordinate the transition from plasma to serum milieus, thereby directing orderly cell migration. In bone, TGFBR2 forms signaling complexes with other receptors (for example, with the parathyroid hormone type I receptor) to regulate osteoblast function and skeletal homeostasis. Moreover, conditional deletion of TGFBR2 in dendritic cells and altered receptor expression in macrophages have been shown to disrupt immune homeostasis and promote autoimmunity, while in cardiac fibroblasts, microRNA‐mediated targeting of TGFBR2 modulates autophagy‐dependent fibrogenesis. These findings collectively highlight how TGFBR2 serves as a multifaceted regulator across various tissues and disease states."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_fs", "start_ref": "30", "end_ref": "36"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "rg", "children": [{"type": "r", "ref": 1, "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "Takeshi Mizuguchi, Gwenaëlle Collod-Beroud, Takushi Akiyama, et al. 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