{"type": "root", "children": [{"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nNOD1 is an intracellular pattern‐recognition receptor that selectively detects diaminopimelate‐containing peptidoglycan motifs—molecular signatures predominantly found in Gram‐negative bacterial cell walls. Its direct engagement with these muropeptides triggers classical NF‑κB and type I interferon signaling cascades in epithelial and other host cells, thereby initiating robust antimicrobial and pro‐inflammatory responses. In addition, NOD1 expression can be upregulated by cytokines such as interferon‑γ, which further enhances its sensitivity and enables rapid intracellular detection of invading bacteria."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_fs", "start_ref": "1", "end_ref": "8"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n\n"}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nDownstream of ligand recognition, NOD1 initiates a finely tuned signaling cascade. Upon activation, it recruits adaptor proteins including RICK and XIAP to facilitate NF‑κB activation, while its efficient signal transduction also depends on endocytic internalization of peptidoglycan fragments through peptide transporters and further post‐translational modifications such as S‑palmitoylation. Moreover, interactions with additional regulatory components—including co‐chaperones and proteins that modulate the actin cytoskeleton—ensure that NOD1 activation is spatially and temporally coordinated during infection with invasive pathogens."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_fs", "start_ref": "9", "end_ref": "17"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n\n"}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nAberrant regulation of NOD1 signaling has been implicated in a variety of human pathologies. Genetic variants and altered expression levels of NOD1 have been linked with chronic inflammatory conditions such as inflammatory bowel disease and atopy, as well as with asthma and even certain tumors. In diverse experimental models, activation of NOD1 in gastrointestinal, renal, and reproductive tissues has been shown to drive the production of pro‐inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and antimicrobial peptides such as beta‑defensins—actions that are critical for maintaining mucosal homeostasis and effective pathogen clearance. These multifaceted roles also extend to modulating cellular processes such as apoptosis and proliferation, thereby influencing disease susceptibility and progression."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_fs", "start_ref": "18", "end_ref": "34"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n\n"}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nRecent advances have expanded the recognized functions of NOD1 beyond direct peptidoglycan sensing. It is now evident that NOD1 can also detect peptidoglycan delivered within bacterial outer membrane vesicles, thereby establishing communication with other pattern‐recognition receptors such as NOD2 and Toll‑like receptors to fine‑tune downstream adaptive immune responses. These findings underscore NOD1’s pivotal role as an orchestrator of intracellular innate immunity and highlight its potential as a therapeutic target in managing infectious and inflammatory diseases."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_fs", "start_ref": "35", "end_ref": "39"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "rg", "children": [{"type": "r", "ref": 1, "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "Stephen E Girardin, Ivo G Boneca, Leticia A M Carneiro, et al. 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