{"type": "root", "children": [{"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nNeuropeptide S receptor 1 (NPSR1) is a G protein–coupled receptor activated by neuropeptide S that plays a pivotal role in modulating arousal, anxiety, and fear‐related behaviors. Functional genetic variants – most notably the rs324981 (Asn⁄107Ile) polymorphism – enhance receptor sensitivity, thereby contributing to increased panic vulnerability, heightened anxiety sensitivity, altered autonomic responses, and modified neural activity in brain regions such as the amygdala, prefrontal cortex, and anterior cingulate. These findings, derived from behavioral paradigms, neuroimaging studies, and electrophysiological assessments, strongly support a central role for NPSR1 in stress regulation and emotion processing."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_fs", "start_ref": "1", "end_ref": "19"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n\n"}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nIn addition to its neuromodulatory function, NPSR1 – originally identified as GPRA – has been implicated in the pathogenesis of several inflammatory and respiratory conditions. Genetic studies in diverse populations have linked NPSR1 variants with asthma susceptibility, elevated IgE levels, increased airway hyper‐responsiveness, and altered bronchoconstrictive responses. Expression analyses reveal that NPSR1 is present in airway epithelia and other tissues where it may regulate inflammatory cytokines and epithelial responses. Moreover, polymorphisms and epigenetic modifications of NPSR1 have also been associated with inflammatory bowel disease, rheumatoid arthritis, and even conditions such as endometriosis and certain neuroendocrine tumors—highlighting its broader role in immunomodulation and epithelial biology."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_fs", "start_ref": "20", "end_ref": "27"}, {"type": "fg_f", "ref": "24"}, {"type": "fg_fs", "start_ref": "28", "end_ref": "39"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n\n"}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nAt the molecular level, detailed structure–activity studies have identified key residues within neuropeptide S that are critical for efficient NPSR1 activation, and targeted mutagenesis experiments have shown that specific amino acid changes (including the Asn⁄107Ile mutation) increase receptor surface expression and agonist potency. Chimeric receptor analyses demonstrate that NPSR1 is capable of coupling to both Gαq‐ and Gαs‐dependent signaling pathways – a duality that underlies its capacity to elicit intracellular calcium mobilization, cAMP production, and downstream ERK1/2 phosphorylation. In addition, gene–environment interactions and epigenetic modifications (including promoter methylation) have emerged as factors modulating NPSR1 expression and function, further elaborating its complex role as a mediator between genetic predisposition and environmental stress in both neuropsychiatric and inflammatory disorders."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_fs", "start_ref": "40", "end_ref": "42"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "rg", "children": [{"type": "r", "ref": 1, "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "K Domschke, A Reif, H Weber, et al. 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