{"type": "root", "children": [{"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nProtamine 1 (PRM1) is a principal sperm nuclear protein that plays an essential role in chromatin condensation and the tight packaging of sperm DNA during spermiogenesis. Numerous studies have demonstrated that proper PRM1 expression and its balanced ratio with protamine 2 (P2) are critical for preserving sperm DNA integrity, normal morphology, and overall fertilizing potential. Aberrant PRM1/P2 ratios have been correlated with reduced sperm concentration, increased DNA fragmentation, and compromised embryo quality, highlighting its fundamental importance in male fertility and assisted reproduction outcomes. Furthermore, investigations of PRM1 gene expression in both fertile and infertile patients have underscored significant associations between altered transcript levels and impaired spermatogenesis as well as defective chromatin packaging."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_fs", "start_ref": "1", "end_ref": "12"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n\n"}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nIn addition to its structural function, genetic variations and regulatory mechanisms affecting PRM1 have been extensively investigated as contributing factors to male infertility. Screening of the PRM1 gene—including its coding and noncoding regions—has revealed several polymorphisms, promoter variants, and missense mutations that, while often rare, can impact transcription factor binding and mRNA levels. Such alterations have been linked to conditions such as oligozoospermia, teratozoospermia, and general spermiogenic defects. Moreover, environmental factors like bacterial infection and tobacco smoking have been shown to downregulate PRM1 expression or disturb its optimal ratio with P2, further affecting sperm quality. Studies employing mRNA analysis and predictive expression ratios (for example, using the KDM3A-to-PRM1 mRNA ratio) also suggest that accurate PRM1 quantification can serve as a valuable biomarker for successful sperm retrieval and fertilization outcomes."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_fs", "start_ref": "13", "end_ref": "27"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n\n"}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nBeyond its well‐established role in spermatogenesis, emerging research has also explored novel functions and regulatory interactions of PRM1 in non‐germ cell contexts. Notably, PRM1 promoter activity can be directly upregulated by transcription factors such as SRY, emphasizing its tightly controlled expression during postmeiotic differentiation. Furthermore, aberrant PRM1 expression has been observed in certain cancer types, where its effect on chromatin condensation may influence cell proliferation and potentially serve as a diagnostic biomarker. Collectively, these findings broaden our understanding of PRM1—not only as a critical mediator of sperm chromatin architecture and genomic integrity, but also as a molecule with significant regulatory and diagnostic implications in both reproductive medicine and oncology."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_fs", "start_ref": "28", "end_ref": "34"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "rg", "children": [{"type": "r", "ref": 1, "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "Hiromitsu Tanaka, Yasushi Miyagawa, Akira Tsujimura, et al. 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"}, {"type": "b", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "Sperm protamine 1/protamine 2 ratios are related to in vitro fertilization pregnancy rates and predictive of fertilization ability."}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " "}, {"type": "i", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "Fertil Steril (2006)"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " DOI: "}, {"type": "a", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "10.1016/j.fertnstert.2006.04.024"}], "href": "https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2006.04.024"}, {"type": "t", "text": " PMID: "}, {"type": "a", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "17011555"}], "href": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17011555"}]}, {"type": "r", "ref": 3, "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "Magdalena Depa-Martynów, Bartosz Kempisty, Margarita Lianeri, et al. 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"}, {"type": "b", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "Evaluation of protamines 1 and 2 transcript contents in spermatozoa from asthenozoospermic men."}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " "}, {"type": "i", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "Folia Histochem Cytobiol (2007)"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " PMID: "}, {"type": "a", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "18292846"}], "href": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18292846"}]}, {"type": "r", "ref": 5, "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "Yan Li, Claudia Lalancette, David Miller, et al. 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