{"type": "root", "children": [{"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nSNAP23 is emerging as a critical regulator of vesicle fusion events that drive the secretion of exosomes and extracellular vesicles in cancer cells and during viral infection. In tumor cells, for example, SNAP23 is phosphorylated by non‐metabolic kinases—such as PKM2 and IKKβ—to promote exosome release and remodeling of the tumor microenvironment, while in virus‐infected cells its relocalization is essential for viral envelope acquisition and propagation. These findings, along with reports identifying oncogenic or tumor‐suppressive roles of SNAP23 in ovarian and cervical cancers, underscore its dual impact on malignant progression."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_fs", "start_ref": "1", "end_ref": "7"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n\n"}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nIn addition to its roles in tumor exocytosis, SNAP23 is pivotal in mediating membrane trafficking events that facilitate extracellular matrix (ECM) degradation and cell invasion. By promoting the delivery of matrix metalloproteinases and MT1‐MMP to invadopodia, and by partnering with integrin‐associated proteins, SNAP23 supports the proteolytic remodeling necessary for cancer cell invasion and metastasis."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_fs", "start_ref": "8", "end_ref": "10"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n\n"}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nSNAP23 also governs regulated secretion in a variety of immune and hematopoietic cells. In platelets, neutrophils, mast cells, macrophages, and plasma cells, it orchestrates the exocytosis of granule contents—including inflammatory mediators, reactive oxygen species, and cytokines—thereby influencing processes such as phagocytosis, respiratory burst, and degranulation. Remarkably, studies have shown that modifications of SNAP23 by PKC, calpain cleavage, and dynamic palmitoylation cycles finely tune its activity in these cells, and that interfering with its function can markedly alter immune secretory responses."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_fs", "start_ref": "11", "end_ref": "23"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n\n"}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nBeyond immune cells, SNAP23 plays essential roles in epithelial, neuroendocrine, and muscle tissues. In epithelial cells, its partnership with syntaxin 1A modulates ion channel activity—for instance, tuning CFTR function in chloride transport—while in parathyroid and pancreatic β cells, SNAP23 is critical for regulated hormone secretion. In skeletal muscle, its subcellular distribution supports glucose transporter 4 trafficking, and structural studies reveal that its unique cysteine‐rich, palmitoylated domain is indispensable for proper membrane targeting and fusion. Moreover, in certain contexts, SNAP23 appears to act as a partial inhibitor of exocytosis, illustrating cell‐type–specific regulatory nuances."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_fs", "start_ref": "24", "end_ref": "32"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n\n"}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nSNAP23 is also implicated in facilitating viral propagation. In hepatocytes, for instance, proteins that control lipid droplet dynamics work in concert with SNAP23 to promote hepatitis C virus replication, while in infections by picornaviruses, its presence is necessary for the formation of replication organelles. These studies highlight a broader role for SNAP23 in modulating host–pathogen interactions through its control of intracellular membrane organization."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "33"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n\n"}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nFinally, in the vascular endothelium, SNAP23 is the predominant SNAP isoform that mediates the exocytosis of von Willebrand factor and the secretion of microRNAs, thereby contributing to thrombosis, inflammation, and intercellular signaling during disturbed blood flow. This function underscores the versatility of SNAP23 in orchestrating membrane fusion events across diverse cellular systems."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "35"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "rg", "children": [{"type": "r", "ref": 1, "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "Sean T H Liu, Ronit Sharon-Friling, Pavlina Ivanova, et al. 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