{"type": "root", "children": [{"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nUBTF (upstream binding transcription factor) is a master regulator of ribosomal DNA (rDNA) transcription by RNA polymerase I, playing a pivotal role in establishing the nucleolar architecture and in coordinating ribosome biogenesis. Studies have shown that oncogenic regulators such as c‐MYC and its antagonist MAD1 modulate rDNA transcription at least in part through effects on UBF expression, thereby impacting cell growth and proliferation."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "1"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " Once bound extensively across rDNA repeats, UBF facilitates the formation and maintenance of nucleolar organizer region (NOR) structures—including the induction of pseudo‐NORs—and dictates chromatin structure favorable for rDNA transcription."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "2"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " Moreover, kinetic studies of pre‐initiation complex assembly have revealed that UBF, although dynamically associating with rDNA, is stabilized and functionally enhanced by SL1, while its phosphorylation status—subject to regulation by factors such as p14ARF—is critical for its transcription‐activating competence"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "3"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": ";"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "4"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": ";."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "5"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " In addition, distinct UBTF isoforms (UBTF1 and UBTF2) have been identified that not only regulate rDNA transcription but also contribute to the transcriptional control of highly expressed Pol II genes and mediate genome stability"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "6"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": ";."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "7"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n\n"}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nAt the molecular level, detailed structural studies have provided insights into how UBF’s multiple high‐mobility group (HMG) box domains orchestrate its function. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and crystallographic analyses of HMG box 1 and box 5 domains reveal that these modules adopt characteristic L‐shaped folds with specific helical arrangements that confer DNA binding specificity and affect folding dynamics"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "8"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": ";"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "9"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": ";."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "10"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " In addition, investigations employing acid‐induced unfolding and hydrogen exchange have further delineated aspects of the folding pathway of UBF’s HMG boxes"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "11"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": ";."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "12"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " Complementary biophysical studies have highlighted the existence of transient structural intermediates and have revealed that dynamic properties of UBF modulate its DNA binding and nucleolar localization"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "13"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": ";"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "14"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": ";"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "15"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": ";"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "16"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": ";."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "17"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " Moreover, UBF’s association with other nucleolar factors—including the histone chaperone B23, the Pol I‐specific factor CAST/hPAF49, and the deacetylase complex recruited by RUNX2—suggests that post‐translational modifications and protein–protein interactions critically modulate its transcriptional activity"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "18"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": ";"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "19"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": ";"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "20"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": ";"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "21"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": ";."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "22"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n\n"}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nPathogenic alterations in UBTF have emerged as important drivers in human disease. Gain‐of‐function mutations, such as the recurrent E210K substitution, lead to aberrant increases in rDNA promoter occupancy and rRNA synthesis, which are linked to neuroregressive conditions"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "23"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": ";"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "24"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": ";."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "25"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " Furthermore, UBTF alterations—including internal tandem duplications and UBTF fusions (for example, UBTF::ATXN7L3) as well as interactions with factors such as ECT2, which enhance its recruitment to rDNA—have been identified in various acute leukemias, underscoring its role as a class‐defining lesion in certain hematologic malignancies"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "26"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": ";"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "27"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": ";"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "28"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": ";."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "29"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n\n"}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nIn addition to its central role in ribosome production, UBTF function is altered by viral and oncogenic contexts. Viral infections are known to co-opt UBF; for instance, herpes simplex virus infection results in the recruitment of UBF into viral replication compartments, and similar interactions have been observed with HBV oncoproteins that enhance UBF phosphorylation to drive rRNA synthesis"}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "30"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": ";."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "31"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " In certain cases, UBF may even function to restrict aspects of viral gene expression."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "32"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": " Moreover, in nonviral oncogenic settings such as invasive bladder cancer, altered interactions between UBF and factors like the nucleolar isoform FGF13A have been linked to dysregulated rRNA production and cell invasion."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_f", "ref": "33"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "rg", "children": [{"type": "r", "ref": 1, "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "Gretchen Poortinga, Katherine M Hannan, Hayley Snelling, et al. 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