{"type": "root", "children": [{"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nUSF1 is a ubiquitously expressed transcription factor that plays a central role in metabolic regulation by directly modulating genes involved in lipid and glucose homeostasis. Genetic studies have linked USF1 to familial combined hyperlipidemia (FCHL), type 2 diabetes and related cardiovascular traits through its control of promoters for key metabolism‐related genes – including those affecting cholesterol, triglycerides and hepatic glucose production. In several family‐based and population studies, risk or protective alleles and haplotypes of USF1 have been associated with abnormal fasting/postprandial lipid profiles, insulin sensitivity and liver fat accumulation. Moreover, experimental modulation of USF1 in mice protects against diet‐induced dyslipidemia, obesity, insulin resistance and atherosclerosis. Collectively, these findings underscore USF1’s function as an upstream regulator of an array of target genes (for example, APOE, APOA5, SHP) that integrate metabolic and cardiovascular homeostasis."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_fs", "start_ref": "1", "end_ref": "17"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n\n"}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nBeyond metabolism, USF1 participates in diverse stress‐ and differentiation‐dependent transcriptional programs. In melanocytes, USF1 is activated via p38 kinase signaling in response to UV irradiation, triggering a tanning response through upregulation of pigmentation genes. In T lymphocytes and during HIV‐1 reactivation, USF1 (often partnering with USF2 and factors such as TFII‐I) binds conserved E‐box sequences in viral promoters to modulate transcription. USF1 also cooperates with other transcription factors to regulate genes involved in cell proliferation/differentiation – for example, influencing the expression of the human telomerase gene in tumor cells, fine‐tuning dCK promoter activity linked to drug responsiveness, and contributing to developmental stage–specific expression of the beta‐globin and immunoglobulin transport (pIgR) genes. Furthermore, USF1‐mediated modulation of E‐box binding and its post‐translational modifications (for example, phosphorylation and subsequent acetylation) are key to its ability to coordinate responses in differentiated trophoblasts, mesoderm specification and even in T helper 17 cell differentiation."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_fs", "start_ref": "18", "end_ref": "30"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n\n"}, {"type": "p", "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "\nUSF1 activity is also modulated by environmental and pathogenic factors. For instance, USF1 (along with its partner USF2) governs the transcription of genes in hepatocytes and other tissues by binding to regulatory elements in promoters of metabolic‐and mitochondrial carrier genes. Moreover, infectious agents such as Helicobacter pylori induce hypermethylation of the USF1/USF2 promoters, thereby diminishing their expression and potentially contributing to pathological processes. Recent reports also implicate USF1 in the transcriptional regulation of mitochondrial transporters, linking it to broader aspects of cellular energy homeostasis."}, {"type": "fg", "children": [{"type": "fg_fs", "start_ref": "31", "end_ref": "33"}]}, {"type": "t", "text": "\n"}]}, {"type": "rg", "children": [{"type": "r", "ref": 1, "children": [{"type": "t", "text": "Päivi Pajukanta, Heidi E Lilja, Janet S Sinsheimer, et al. 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